Other Dangerous Drugs

The production, distribution, and abuse of other dangerous drugs (ODDs), including the club drugs GHB, ketamine, and Rohypnol as well as the hallucinogens LSD, PCP, and psilocybin, pose only a moderate overall threat to the country.²¹ The availability and use of these drugs are moderate and relatively stable. Particularly popular among adolescents and young adults, these drugs are most prevalent in metropolitan areas. Some club drugs, particularly GHB and Rohypnol, are used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults because of their sedative properties. Although law enforcement reporting indicates increased availability of hallucinogens within college and rave communities, the most recent drug prevalence data indicate that overall use of these drugs is relatively stable.

NDTS 2003 data show that less than 1 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide identify any of the ODDs as their greatest drug threat. In fact, regionally, only state and local law enforcement agencies in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic, Great Lakes, and West Central regions identify any of the ODDs as their greatest drug threat. In the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic, 0.3 and 0.1 percent of agencies identify GHB and PCP, respectively; in the Great Lakes, 0.2 percent identify LSD; and in the West Central region, 0.1 percent identify ketamine as their greatest drug threat.

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Club Drugs

Club drugs, a term used to refer to drugs commonly sold or used at dance clubs or raves, include GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyrate) and GHB analogs, ketamine, MDMA (see MDMA section), and Rohypnol (flunitrazepam). The trafficking and abuse of these drugs pose a moderate threat overall, and use of club drugs appears to be highest among adolescents and young adults, according to the most recent reporting from law enforcement and public health agencies. In addition to GHB, ketamine, MDMA, and Rohypnol, several other drugs including 2C-T-7 (2,5-dimethoxy-4-(n)-propylthiophenethylamine),
2C-B (4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine), BZP (N-benzylpiperazine), TFMPP (1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine), 5-Meo-DIPT, and AMT (alpha-methyltryptamine) are commonly considered club drugs, although the availability of these drugs is limited.

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GHB

GHB, a Schedule 1 drug under the Controlled Substances Act, and its analogs, such as GBL (gamma-butyrolactone) and BD (1,4-butanediol), appear to be available to varying degrees in every state, and overall availability appears to be increasing slightly. Only a limited number of federal law enforcement agencies report that GHB is readily or widely available. These agencies include the New York/New Jersey, Arizona, South Texas, and Washington/Baltimore HIDTAs and the Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, and Los Angeles DEA Field Divisions. Most HIDTAs and DEA Field Divisions as well as several Pulse Check sources report that GHB availability is moderate or low; however, nine HIDTAs and six DEA Field Divisions also report that availability is increasing. GHB- and GBL-related OCDETF investigations increased from 1 in FY2001 to 17 in FY2002. The number of OCDETF indictments in which GHB was charged also increased slightly, from 6 in FY2001 to 9 in FY2002. STRIDE 2002 data indicate that the amount of GHB samples submitted for testing decreased from 100,218 milliliters in 2001 to 77,918.9 milliliters in 2002.

NDTS 2003 data show that 20.7 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide described GHB availability as high or moderate, an increase from 16.4 percent in 2002. More than half (59.0%) of state and local law enforcement agencies in 2003 describe availability as low; however, the percentage of state and local agencies reporting that GHB is not available in their areas decreased from 29.6 percent in 2002 to 15.8 percent in 2003.

NFLIS data show that GHB rarely is identified in drug items analyzed by state and local forensic laboratories. In fact, GHB and GBL combined were identified only 549 times in 2002, representing only 4.48 percent of the 12,247 samples of club drugs (GHB/GBL, ketamine, MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), MDEA (3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine), MDMA, and PMA (paramethoxyamphetamine)) identified and less than 1 percent of all drug items identified.

Data regarding GHB use are mixed. MTF data show that past year GHB use from 2002 to 2003 among eighth graders trended upward from 0.8 to 0.9 percent, remained stable among tenth graders at 1.4 percent, and trended downward among twelfth graders from 1.5 to 1.4 percent; however, none of the rate changes were statistically significant. PATS data show that lifetime use among teens aged 12 to 17 was 3 percent in 2001 and 4 percent in 2002. The estimated number of DAWN ED mentions for GHB did not change significantly from 2001 (3,340) to 2002 (3,330). (DAWN GHB data include the analog GBL.)

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GHB is produced illegally in both domestic and foreign laboratories, usually in the areas where it is sold and used; however, there are no generally accepted estimates as to how much is produced illegally each year. Law enforcement sources report that GHB is produced in many areas of the country; seven HIDTAs (Central Florida, Midwest, Nevada, North Texas, Oregon, Rocky Mountain, and South Florida) report production in their areas. NCLSS data show that the number of reported laboratory seizures decreased from 13 in 2001 to 8 in 2002. Since 1999, California typically has led all other states in the number of reported GHB laboratory seizures, and the state reported the most GHB laboratory seizures each year from 1999 through 2001; however, in 2002, Oregon led all states with three such seizures. Illicit producers of GHB typically are Caucasian independent producers.

GHB also is smuggled into the United States from Canada, Europe, Mexico and, to a lesser extent, Israel. GHB is most often transported to the United States by commercial air carrier, mail service, or private vehicle. Primarily middle-class, male Caucasians aged 18 to 30 distribute GHB, but African American gangs and other diverse independent dealers are active in GHB distribution. GHB often is distributed at nightclubs, raves, college campuses, gyms, and via the Internet, where it frequently is sold under the guise of cleaning products and nail polish remover. The drug often is packaged in plastic bottles, eyedropper bottles, and small mouthwash bottles and sold to young adults and teens for $5 to $30 per dose.

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Ketamine

Ketamine, a Schedule III dissociative anesthetic with a combination of depressant, stimulant, hallucinogenic, and analgesic properties, is used primarily as a preoperative anesthetic for animals. The drug also is approved as an anesthetic for emergency surgery in humans; however, use in humans has been limited because of adverse effects such as hallucination and delirium. The liquid form of ketamine can be injected, applied to a cigarette or joint and smoked, or ingested after it is added to a drink. Ketamine powder is smoked, snorted, or ingested after it is added to a drink.

Most HIDTAs and DEA Field Divisions report that ketamine is available in their areas, and availability is increasing slightly in some regions of the country. The Milwaukee, New England, North Texas, and Northwest HIDTAs report that ketamine availability is increasing in their areas. Ketamine is reported as an emerging or growing problem by Pulse Check sources in Denver, El Paso, New Orleans, and Sioux Falls. STRIDE data show that the number of ketamine samples submitted for testing increased from 3,184.6 dosage units in 2001 to 4,367.3 in 2002. NFLIS estimates reveal that ketamine was among the 25 most frequently identified drugs in the United States, accounting for 0.16 percent of the total analyzed drug items in state and local forensic laboratories. The Northeast region reported the highest percentage (0.43%) of analyzed ketamine samples of any region in the United States in 2002. Percentages totaling 0.13, 0.11, and 0.11 were reported in the West, Midwest, and South regions, respectively. NFLIS further reports that ketamine accounted for 1,471 (12.01%) of the 12,247 club drug samples identified in state and local forensic laboratories in 2002.

NDTS 2003 data reveal that ketamine availability is considered high or moderate by 13.6 percent of state and local law enforcement respondents nationwide, an increase from 10.7 percent in 2002. Most agencies (61.1%) report low ketamine availability, up from 49.5 percent in 2002. The percentage of state and local law enforcement agencies reporting that ketamine is not available in their areas decreased from 36.5 percent in 2002 to 20.8 percent in 2003.

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Somewhat limited data regarding ketamine use indicate that rates of use are trending downward among adolescents and that use is highest among twelfth graders. MTF data for 2002 and 2003 show that past year rates of use for ketamine trended downward, from 1.3 to 1.1 percent among eighth graders, 2.2 to 1.9 percent for tenth graders, and 2.6 to 2.1 percent for twelfth graders; however, none of the changes were statistically significant. PATS data indicate that lifetime use of ketamine among adolescents aged 12 to 17 remained stable at 5 percent in both 2001 to 2002. Despite indications of relatively stable use, DAWN data indicate that the estimated number of ED mentions for ketamine decreased sharply from 679 in 2001 to 260 in 2002.

Ketamine is produced and sold legally in several countries, including Belgium, China, Colombia, Germany, Mexico, and the United States. Clandestine production is difficult and impractical because of the complexity of the ketamine manufacturing process; therefore, the theft or diversion of ketamine, often from foreign and domestic veterinary offices, is common. Law enforcement reporting indicates that most of the illegally obtained ketamine available in the United States is diverted from Mexico and other foreign sources. Diverted ketamine often is smuggled across the border from Mexico by couriers on foot or in private vehicles, but a large amount increasingly is transported from foreign countries via mail services.

Distribution of liquid and powdered ketamine typically occurs among friends and acquaintances, most often at nightclubs, private parties, and raves. Caucasian males between the ages of 17 and 25 are the primary distributors of ketamine, but Mexican criminal groups increasingly are distributing the drug, particularly in the Rocky Mountain HIDTA area. Law enforcement reporting indicates that liquid ketamine can be purchased for $10 to $125 per 10-milliliter vial, while powdered ketamine typically sells for $40 to $200 per gram.

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Rohypnol

Rohypnol, a Schedule IV drug under the Controlled Substances Act, is a powerful sedative drug. Most often available in tablet form, the drug normally is ingested orally; however, tablets sometimes are crushed into powder and snorted or dissolved in a liquid for injection or oral ingestion. The DEA San Francisco Field Division reports that Rohypnol also is available in liquid form, albeit in limited amounts. The drug is produced or sold legally in several foreign countries to treat sleep disorders and for use as a preanesthetic medication. Because of its potent sedative properties, Rohypnol is one of the drugs commonly implicated in drug-facilitated sexual assaults.

The availability of Rohypnol generally is low, with the highest availability reported in states near the U.S.-Mexico border. Most Pulse Check sources describe Rohypnol as somewhat, not very, or not at all available. Nonetheless, Pulse Check sources in Los Angeles and El Paso report that the drug is widely available. Despite overall reports of limited availability, STRIDE data indicate that the number of Rohypnol samples submitted for testing increased sharply from 690.6 dosage units in 2001 to 1,527.5 dosage units in 2002. NFLIS 2002 data show that Rohypnol is not among the 25 most identified drugs analyzed by state and local forensic laboratories and represented only 0.35 percent (74 of 21,145) of the total identified benzodiazepine samples.

NDTS 2003 data indicate that 10.1 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide described Rohypnol availability as high or moderate, an increase from just 5.7 percent in 2002. Those agencies reporting low Rohypnol availability increased from 47.4 percent in 2002 to 61.5 percent in 2003. The percentage of state and local law enforcement agencies reporting that ketamine is not available in their areas decreased sharply, from 42.8 percent in 2002 to 23.9 percent in 2003.

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Abuse of Rohypnol appears to be low, based on limited data. According to MTF data, rates of past year use of Rohypnol between 2002 and 2003 were 0.3 and 0.5 percent for eighth graders, 0.7 and 0.6 percent for tenth graders, and 1.6 and 1.3 percent for twelfth graders. None of the changes were statistically significant.

Rohypnol is produced legally in several countries and is widely available in Latin American (primarily Mexico and Colombia) and European countries. Rohypnol is neither manufactured nor approved for medical use in the United States, however, compelling distributors to smuggle the drug from foreign sources, particularly Mexico and Colombia. Independent distributors often travel to Mexico to obtain the drug (a prescription is not required to purchase Rohypnol in Mexico) and smuggle it into the United States by couriers on foot or in private vehicles. Mexican traffickers also smuggle Rohypnol across the U.S.-Mexico border, usually by couriers on foot and in private vehicles. Colombian criminal groups typically transport Rohypnol to the United States via mail services or couriers traveling aboard commercial airlines. Rohypnol is most commonly sold by independent dealers, typically older Caucasian teens or young adults, to teens and young adults at gyms, nightclubs, and raves for approximately $5 per tablet.

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Hallucinogens

Hallucinogen trafficking and abuse pose only a moderate threat to the United States because of limited availability; hallucinogen availability is limited primarily to metropolitan areas. Although law enforcement reporting indicates increased availability of hallucinogens within college communities and raves, the most recent drug prevalence data indicate that overall use of these drugs is relatively stable.

LSD

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) availability has decreased sharply overall since 2000. However, federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies report that LSD remains available in most metropolitan areas, but that availability in rural areas appears to be very limited. Only the DEA Denver Field Division and five HIDTAs (Gulf Coast, Houston, Midwest, North Texas, and South Texas) reported increasing LSD availability in their areas. Limited availability was reported in four DEA Field Divisions (Newark, New York, Seattle, and St. Louis) and four HIDTAs (Nevada, New England, Philadelphia/Camden, and Southeast Michigan). STRIDE data indicate that the number of LSD samples submitted for testing has decreased each of the past 3 years, from 24,460,969.6 dosage units in 2000, to 93,973.5 dosage units in 2001, to 1,624.2 dosage units in 2002.

NDTS data indicate that 18.9 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide describe LSD availability as high or moderate, a slight decrease from 20.9 percent in 2002. Most state and local agencies (66.0%) report low availability in 2003, up from 57.1 percent in 2002.

LSD use among adults appears to be decreasing. MTF data indicate a significant decrease in use between 2001 and 2002 for college students aged 18 to 22 (4.0% to 2.1%) and young adults aged 19 to 28 (3.4% to 1.8%). According to NSDUH, 1.8 percent of persons aged 18 to 25 and 0.1 percent of those aged 26 or older reported past year LSD use in 2002.

Data regarding past year LSD use among adolescents also show decreases. MTF data reveal decreases in past year MDMA use from 2002 to 2003. Rates decreased significantly for tenth (2.6% to 1.7%) and twelfth graders (3.5% to 1.9%). Past year rates of LSD use among eighth graders also trended downward from 2002 to 2003 (1.5% to 1.3%); however, the change was not statistically significant. PATS data also indicate a decrease in adolescent LSD use from 10 percent in 2001 to 8 percent in 2002. NSDUH data indicate that past year use of LSD was 1.3 percent for adolescents aged 12 to 17 in 2002.

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The consequences of LSD use have decreased as well. The estimated number of DAWN ED mentions for LSD decreased sharply from 2,821 in 2001 to 891 in 2002. Decreases in ED mentions were recorded for several demographic subgroups including males, females, Hispanics, and most age groups.

Most LSD available in the United States is produced primarily in northern California and the Pacific Northwest by a relatively small network of experienced chemists; however, independent dealers throughout the country produce the drug in limited quantities. Law enforcement reporting indicates that LSD shipments have originated in Denver, Houston, and New York City as well as California, New Jersey, and Oregon. LSD shipments also have originated in foreign source areas such as Mexico. Seizures of domestic LSD laboratories are rare. NCLSS data show only one reported clandestine LSD laboratory seizure in 2000--the laboratory produced an estimated 94 million LSD dosage units. No laboratory seizures were reported nationwide in 1999, 2001, or 2002.

Transportation and wholesale distribution of LSD is controlled by the limited number of producers of the drug, who supply trusted midlevel distributors in all regions of the country. LSD is transported to midlevel distributors primarily by private vehicles and mail services. Local independent dealers, usually Caucasian males in their late teens or early twenties, are the principal retail distributors of LSD. Nonetheless, the Milwaukee HIDTA indicates that some of the local independent LSD dealers in its area are Mexican, and the DEA Philadelphia Field Division identifies OMGs as retail LSD distributors in its area. Young adults are the primary users of LSD, and sales of the drug most often take place at colleges, high schools, nightclubs, and raves. LSD is distributed in crystal, tablet, or liquid form--the liquid is sometimes ingested in gelatin squares or applied to sugar cubes or paper--and sells for $1 to $15 per dosage unit.

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PCP

Law enforcement reporting and seizure data indicate that PCP (phencyclidine) is available throughout the country, primarily in metropolitan areas. In some areas the availability of PCP appears to be increasing. Most DEA Field Divisions report that PCP is available in their areas, and two (Philadelphia and Washington, D.C.) report that availability is increasing or resurgent. Less than half of the HIDTAs report PCP availability; however, seven (Chicago, Houston, North Texas, Ohio, Philadelphia/Camden, South Texas, and Washington/Baltimore) note increasing availability or a resurgence of the drug. According to STRIDE data, the number of PCP dosage units submitted for testing increased sharply, from 1,037,573.5 in 2001 to 5,979,103.7 in 2002.

NDTS data show that 9.6 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide reported high or moderate PCP availability, up from 6.5 percent in 2002. NDTS data further show that 62.1 percent of agencies reported that PCP availability is low, compared with 50.7 percent the previous year. Nearly one-quarter (23.6%) indicated that PCP was not available in their areas.

According to NFLIS 2002 data, 5,559 PCP items were analyzed by state and local forensic laboratories nationwide, representing 0.31 percent of all drug items analyzed. NFLIS regions reporting the highest percentage of PCP items tested were the Northeast (0.68%) and West (0.54%).

PCP use is very limited for all age groups but appears to be highest among twelfth graders. MTF data also indicate low rates of past year PCP use for young adults aged 18 to 28 in 2001 (0.6%) and 2002 (0.3%). The rate of past year use of PCP for adults aged 18 to 25 was 0.3 percent in 2002, according to NSDUH. Data were not measurable for adults aged 26 or older. MTF data indicate that past year PCP use among twelfth graders was 1.1 percent in 2002 and 1.3 percent in 2003; however, the change is not statistically significant. NSDUH data indicate that past year PCP use for those aged 12 to 17 was 0.4 percent in 2002.

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The consequences of PCP use have been increasing. According to DAWN, the estimated number of ED mentions for PCP rose steadily each year, from 3,436 mentions in 1998 to 7,648 mentions in 2002. DAWN data show that among DAWN reporting cities ED mentions for PCP were highest in Washington, D.C. (1,302), Philadelphia (1,144), and Los Angeles (991). In Newark, ED mentions for PCP increased dramatically from 35 in 2001 to 124 in 2002--an increase of more than 250 percent.

There are no generally accepted estimates as to annual domestic PCP production; however, laboratory seizure data and law enforcement reporting indicate that production remains limited and controlled primarily by African American criminal groups and street gangs in California, often in the Los Angeles and San Bernardino areas. NCLSS data indicate that of the 25 clandestine laboratories seized in the United States from 1999 through June 2003, 18 were located in California. Moreover, five of the six laboratories seized from January to June 2003 were in California. PCP production by other criminal groups (particularly Mexican criminal groups), gangs, and independent laboratory operators occurs in other areas throughout the country, but to a much lesser extent.

African American gangs and criminal groups control most transportation and wholesale distribution of PCP in the United States. African American gangs also are the primary midlevel and retail distributors, although local independent dealers distribute the drug as well. Belizean nationals distribute PCP at the midlevel and retail level primarily in New York City. PCP is transported to these distributors primarily by mail services but also by couriers on buses, commercial flights, private vehicles, and trains. Retail-level distributors sell PCP in inner-city open-air markets, on college campuses, and at raves. The drug sells for $20 to $30 per gram in liquid and powder form and for $20 to $30 per dose in tablet form. Cities where retail sales of PCP are common include Baltimore, Chicago, Detroit, Houston, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, New Orleans, Newark, New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C.

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Psilocybin

Psilocybin (hallucinogenic mushrooms) is available to varying degrees in most areas of the country, although availability appears to be highest in western states. Law enforcement reporting indicates that psilocybin is somewhat available in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic, Southeast, and Southwest regions, although less so than in the Great Lakes, Pacific, and West Central regions. Only seven HIDTAs (Midwest, Milwaukee, New England, New Mexico, North Texas, Oregon, and Rocky Mountain) and four DEA Field Divisions (Boston, Denver, Phoenix, and Seattle) report psilocybin availability. High availability was reported in some areas of the Rocky Mountain HIDTA, while low availability was reported in the Milwaukee and New Mexico HIDTAs.

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NDTS data show that only 23.4 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide reported high or moderate availability of psilocybin; however, this is an increase from 17.2 percent in 2002. The percentage of state and local law enforcement agencies reporting low psilocybin availability also increased from 52.0 percent in 2002 to 58.9 percent in 2003. Regionally, agencies in the Pacific (44.2%), West Central (27.2%), and Great Lakes (23.8%) accounted for the greatest proportions of agencies reporting high or moderate availability of psilocybin, followed by those in the Southwest (21.7%), Northeast/Mid-Atlantic (19.2%), and Southeast regions (18.9%).

Most national-level prevalence studies do not report psilocybin use; however, NSDUH does report lifetime use among adults and adolescents. These data indicate that lifetime psilocybin use for adults aged 18 to 25 was 13.4 percent in 2002; lifetime psilocybin use among adolescents aged 12 to 17 was 2.3 percent.

Psilocybin is cultivated in indoor and outdoor grow sites in most regions of the country, particularly in the Pacific region. Local independent dealers are the primary producers of the drug. State and local law enforcement agencies specifically reporting cultivation during the past year include those in Arkansas, California, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Four HIDTAs (Midwest, New England, Oregon, and Rocky Mountain) and four DEA Field Divisions (Atlanta, Boston, Denver, and Seattle) also note production in their areas. Indoor cultivation appears to be increasing, likely aided by an increase in the availability of mail-order cultivation kits and indoor cultivation information available via the Internet.

Psilocybin cultivators transport the drug to distributors throughout the country primarily via mail services but also by couriers on commercial flights or in commercial or private vehicles. Caucasian males between the ages of 18 and 21 are the primary distributors, most often selling the drug near or on college campuses for between $5 and $35 per gram.

End Note

21. This report cites trademark names such as OxyContin and Rohypnol in discussing the diversion and abuse of such substances. The use of any trademark names in this assessment does not imply any criminal activity, criminal intent, or misdealing on the part of the companies that manufacture these drugs. All such citations are made for reference purposes only.

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