Cocaine  

Cocaine trafficking and abuse represent a significant drug threat to the United States. Both powder and crack cocaine are readily available throughout the country and overall availability appears to be stable. All Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Field Divisions and High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas (HIDTAs) report that powder and crack cocaine are readily available in their areas. Law enforcement reporting indicates that the number of cocaine-related federal investigations and arrests remained relatively stable over the past year. Federal seizures of cocaine have decreased; however, cocaine remains second only to marijuana as the drug most seized by federal agencies. The National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC) National Drug Threat Survey (NDTS) data for 2003 indicate that 37.0 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide identify cocaine (both powder and crack) as their greatest drug threat, higher than any other drug type.

The demand for cocaine is high and adults appear to be the largest user cohort for both powder and crack cocaine. Worldwide cocaine production decreased significantly in 2002, largely because of intensified coca eradication in Colombia. Cocaine continues to be smuggled into the United States, primarily overland from Mexico in private and commercial vehicles. Cocaine is transported within the United States, primarily via commercial and private vehicles but also by trains, buses, mail services, and couriers on commercial flights. The distribution of powder cocaine and crack occurs throughout the country and the market for the drug appears to be stable overall. All DEA Field Divisions and HIDTAs report that powder cocaine is distributed in their areas, most report that crack cocaine is distributed particularly in inner cities, and some report that crack distribution is increasing in smaller towns and communities. The primary market areas for cocaine are Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, and New York.

NDTS 2003 data reveal that 7.0 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide identified powder cocaine as their greatest drug threat. Regionally, more state and local law enforcement agencies in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic (11.0%), Southwest (10.6%), and Great Lakes regions (9.2%)¹ identified powder cocaine as their greatest drug threat than did those in the West Central (3.2%), Southeast (2.8%), and Pacific regions (1.6%).²

NDTS 2003 data also reveal that 30.0 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide identified crack cocaine as their greatest drug threat; however, there are significant regional differences. More state and local law enforcement agencies in the Southeast (59.1%), Great Lakes (30.4%), and Northeast/Mid-Atlantic regions (28.1%) identified crack cocaine as their greatest drug threat than did those in the Southwest (20.2%) and West Central regions (9.0%). Only 3.7 percent of agencies in the Pacific region identified crack cocaine as their greatest drug threat.

The physiological effects of cocaine contribute to the threat posed by the drug. Short-term effects include constricted blood vessels and increased heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. Long-term effects of the drug may include addiction, irritability, mood disturbances, restlessness, auditory hallucinations, and paranoid psychosis. Prolonged cocaine use can cause medical complications including irritation or destruction of the nasal septum, disturbances in heart rhythm, heart attacks, respiratory failure, strokes, seizures, and gastrointestinal gangrene. The abuse of large amounts of the drug at one time may result in erratic or violent behavior, cardiac arrest, seizures, respiratory failure, and death.

Violence and collateral criminal activity often are associated with the distribution and use of cocaine, particularly crack cocaine. Gangs³ that distribute cocaine often engage in violence to establish or maintain control of distribution in an area. Law enforcement reporting indicates that cocaine users, particularly crack users, often commit property crimes and armed robberies to pay for the drug. NDTS 2003 data indicate that cocaine was identified as the drug that most contributes to violent crime by 50.1 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies and that it was identified as the drug that most contributes to property crime by 42.0 percent of such agencies--higher than any other drug for both categories.

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Availability

Powder cocaine is readily available throughout the United States, and overall availability appears to be stable. All DEA Field Divisions and HIDTAs report that cocaine is widely or readily available, and most report that availability is stable in their areas. In fact, only two offices, the Houston and Oregon HIDTAs, report increasing availability. Similarly, all Pulse Check⁴ sources report that cocaine is widely available, but just six report increased cocaine availability.

Estimates regarding the total amount of cocaine available are inconclusive, largely because of limitations in seizure data. However, in attempting to quantify the amount of cocaine available in the United States, the interagency Cocaine Availability Working Group estimated that there were approximately 263 metric tons of cocaine (100% pure) available in 2001, the most recently available data, an increase from 252 metric tons in 2000. This estimate is derived from analysis of limited data and, as such, has a high degree of uncertainty.

According to the NDTS 2003, 81.7 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide reported the availability of powder cocaine as high or moderate, an increase from 76.2 percent in 2002. Only 16.4 percent of agencies reported low availability of the drug in 2003, a decrease from 21.6 percent in 2002. Only 0.5 percent of agencies reported that powder cocaine was not available in their area.

Crack cocaine is available throughout the country, particularly in urban areas, and availability appears to be stable overall. Seven DEA Field Divisions (Detroit, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, Seattle, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C.) reported an increase in crack availability in their areas. No Field Divisions reported a decrease in availability. While crack is most available in urban areas, the Arizona, Central Florida, Milwaukee, Oregon, Southeast Michigan, and Washington/Baltimore HIDTAs also reported increasing availability in suburban and rural areas.

According to the NDTS 2003, 75.0 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide reported crack availability as high or moderate, up from 67.1 percent in 2002. The proportion of agencies that reported low crack availability was 21.9 percent in 2003, a decrease from 27.2 percent in 2002. Only 1.7 percent of agencies reported that crack was not available in their area.

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Data regarding federal cocaine investigations and indictments were mixed but comprise the largest percentage of Organized Crime Drug Enforcement Task Force (OCDETF) investigations and indictments in fiscal year (FY) 2002. Of the 900 OCDETF investigations initiated in FY2002, 608 (67.6 %) involved cocaine and 184 (20.4%) involved crack, compared with 65.7 percent and 26.0 percent, respectively, in FY2001. Of the 3,242 OCDETF indictments obtained in FY2002, 1,021 (31.5%) referenced cocaine and 857 (26.4%) indictments referenced crack, slight decreases from 34.4 percent and 28.8 percent, respectively, in FY2001. While the number of DEA arrests involving cocaine, both powder and crack, decreased from 12,994 in 2001 to 11,513 in 2002, the rate of cocaine arrests remained relatively stable, constituting 39 percent of all drug arrests in 2001 and 40 percent in 2002. Crack arrests decreased slightly from 38 percent of all cocaine arrests in 2001 to 36 percent in 2002. United States Sentencing Commission (USSC) data show that the percentages of federal drug sentences for both cocaine and crack remained stable from FY2000 to FY2001. Federal drug sentences involving powder cocaine comprised 22.8 percent of all federal drug sentences in FY2000 and 22.1 percent in FY2001. Crack cocaine sentences comprised 21.4 percent in 2000 and 20.4 percent in 2001.

Federal cocaine seizures have decreased each year since 1999. Federal-wide Drug Seizure System (FDSS)⁵ data indicate that cocaine seizures decreased from 131,073.6 kilograms (1999), to 106,594.1 kilograms (2000), to 105,773.9 kilograms (2001), to 101,877.8 kilograms (2002). Despite these decreases, cocaine remained second only to marijuana in the total amount seized by federal agencies.

National Forensic Laboratory Information System (NFLIS) data for 2002 reveal that cocaine accounted for a greater percentage of drug items analyzed in state and local forensic laboratories nationwide (31.42%) than any other drug except cannabis/THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) (35.22%). Regionally, laboratories in the South reported the highest number of cocaine samples analyzed (278,817), followed by the Midwest (116,348), Northeast (104,122), and West (65,662).

DEA reports that in 2002 prices for powder cocaine ranged nationally from $10,000 to $38,000 per kilogram (prices in metropolitan areas ranged from $10,000 to $28,000 per kilogram), from $400 to $1,800 per ounce, and from $20 to $200 per gram. Prices for crack cocaine ranged from $500 to $1,500 per ounce and from $5 to $100 per rock.

DEA reports that the average national purity for wholesale-level powder cocaine decreased from 72 percent for kilogram quantities in 2000 to 69 percent in 2001. Similarly, the average purity for retail-level cocaine also decreased between 2000 and 2001 from 56 percent to 53 percent for ounce quantities and from 59 percent to 56 percent for gram quantities. However, in the last 6 months of 2002, the average national purity for wholesale-level powder cocaine was 81 percent. The increase in cocaine purity likely is due to several factors, including fewer laboratory operators adding cutting agents to cocaine bricks.

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Demand

National-level prevalence data indicate that the demand for cocaine is high, and adults appear to be the largest user cohort for both powder and crack cocaine. According to National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH)⁶ data, the percentage of individuals aged 12 and older who reported past year use of cocaine was 2.5 percent in 2002, while the percentage reporting use of crack cocaine was 0.7 percent.

Monitoring the Future (MTF)⁷ data reveal that despite slight changes in the rates of cocaine use (both powder and crack) among adults, none of the changes were statistically significant.⁸ Rates of past year cocaine use among young adults aged 19 to 28 were 5.3 percent in 2001 and 5.6 percent in 2002, while rates of past year crack use were 1.3 and 1.0 percent during the same period. Similarly, rates of past year powder cocaine use among college students aged 19 to 22 were 4.1 percent in 2001 and 5.0 percent in 2002. Rates of past year crack use among 19- to 22-year-olds were 0.9 and 0.4 percent during the same period. According to NSDUH data, the rate of past year use for cocaine (powder and crack) was higher among young adults aged 18 to 25 (6.7%) than among older adults aged 26 and older (1.8%). The rate of use for crack was also higher among users aged 18 to 25 (0.9%) than for users aged 26 and older (0.7%).

Cocaine use among adolescents appears to be trending downward for eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders. MTF data indicate that rates of past year use for powder cocaine declined from 1.8 percent (2002) to 1.6 percent (2003) for eighth graders, 3.4 to 2.8 percent for tenth graders, and 4.4 to 4.2 percent in for twelfth graders; however, none of the decreases were significant. MTF data further indicate downward trends in crack use among tenth and twelfth graders. According to MTF, the rate of past year crack use among eighth graders was unchanged (1.6 percent) from 2002 to 2003. Rates of past year crack use among tenth graders declined significantly from 2.3 percent in 2002 to 1.6 percent in 2003. Rates of past year crack use among twelfth graders declined from 2.3 percent (2002) to 2.2 percent (2003); however, the change in rates was not significant. According to NSDUH data, the rate of past year powder and crack cocaine use among teens aged 12 to 17 was 2.1 percent in 2002. The rate of past year crack use among 12- to 17-year-olds was 0.4 percent.

Data from the Parents' Resource Institute for Drug Education (PRIDE)⁹ indicate that cocaine use is increasing among older and younger students. Rates of past year cocaine use increased significantly for senior high students from 5.1 percent during the 2001-2002 school year to 6.3 percent during the 2002-2003 school year. For twelfth graders specifically, past year cocaine use rates increased from 7.1 to 8.6 percent during that period. For junior high students, past year cocaine use rates increased significantly from 2.1 percent during the 2001-2002 school year to 3.1 percent during the 2002-2003 school year.

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Adolescents' attitudes regarding cocaine use have remained stable. According to the Partnership Attitude Tracking Study (PATS),¹⁰ students' perceptions of risk regarding cocaine use trended upward for all grades from 2001 to 2002; however, the changes were not statistically significant. The percentage of seventh through twelfth graders that agreed there was great risk in regularly using cocaine or crack was 82 percent in 2001 and 83 percent in 2002. The percentage that agreed there was great risk in trying powder or crack cocaine once or twice during those years was 48 and 49 percent, respectively. MTF data indicate that the proportion of students reporting that they perceived great risk in trying powder cocaine once or twice did not change statistically from 2002 to 2003 for eighth (43.2% and 43.7%), tenth (51.3% and 51.8%), or twelfth graders (49.5% and 46.2%).

Data regarding the consequences of cocaine use are mixed. Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN)¹¹ data indicate that the estimated number of cocaine-related emergency department (ED) mentions increased slightly from 193,034 in 2001 to 199,198 in 2002. The rate of ED mentions for cocaine also increased, albeit only slightly, from 76 per 100,000 population in 2001 to 78 per 100,000 population in 2002.

Despite increasing ED mentions for cocaine, the most recently available data from the Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS)¹² indicate that the number of admissions to publicly funded treatment facilities for cocaine use (smoked and nonsmoked) decreased from 236,325 in 1999 to 218,311 in 2000. The rate of admissions for which cocaine was the primary substance of abuse also declined from 14.4 percent in 1999 to 13.6 percent in 2000. The rate of all cocaine-related admissions that were attributed to crack remained stable at 73 percent for both years.

Data from the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM)¹³ program indicate that the median percentage of adult males testing positive for powder cocaine was 30.4 percent in 2002--a higher rate than that of any drug except marijuana. The median percentage of adult male arrestees reporting past year use of powder cocaine was 13.9 percent, while the median percentage of adult male arrestees reporting past year use of crack cocaine was 18.3 percent.

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Production

Nearly all cocaine is produced in remote laboratories in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia and smuggled into the United States in large amounts. Cocaine production increased sharply between 2000 and 2001, then fell in 2002. Interagency estimates indicate that potential cocaine production--occurring primarily in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia--increased from 840 metric tons (100% pure) in 2000 to 995 metric tons (100% pure) in 2001. Estimates for 2002 indicate that total potential production in the three primary source areas declined to 880 metric tons (100% pure), largely because of intensified eradication in Colombia. The number of hectares under cultivation in Peru and Bolivia increased in 2002; however, net production in those countries remained stable.

Estimates indicate that potential cocaine production in Colombia in 2002 was 680 metric tons (100% pure), a decrease from 795 metric tons in 2001. Colombian drug traffickers control production of the drug, producing powder cocaine from coca cultivated primarily in south central Colombia and, to a lesser extent, from cocaine base transported from Peru and Bolivia. DEA estimates that more than 80 percent of the worldwide powder cocaine supply and approximately 90 percent of the powder cocaine smuggled into the United States are produced in Colombia.

Potential cocaine yield in Peru in 2002, as in 2001, was estimated at 140 metric tons (100% pure). Most coca cultivation--controlled by local independent farmers who sell the coca to brokers--occurs in central and southern Peru. Peru is a source both of cocaine base, an undetermined amount of which is transported to Colombia for conversion to powder cocaine, and of finished powder cocaine that is transported to markets in South America, Mexico, the United States, and Europe. Bolivia is an important transit country for cocaine base transported from Peru to Brazil. Much of this cocaine base is consumed in Brazil, but there are indications that some is destined for Europe, Mexico, and the United States.

Potential cocaine yield in Bolivia in 2002, as in 2001, was estimated at 60 metric tons (100% pure). Coca cultivation in Bolivia--controlled by local independent farmers who sell the coca to brokers--is concentrated in the Yungas and Chapare regions of the country. Coca cultivation has decreased substantially since the mid-1990s, and most finished powder cocaine produced in Bolivia reportedly is destined for Brazil. Most cocaine base produced in Bolivia is either converted to powder and crack cocaine in Bolivian laboratories or is transported to Brazil or Argentina.

Most crack cocaine available in the United States is converted at or near distribution points, typically in urban areas. NDTS data indicate that most (68.0%) state and local law enforcement agencies reported that powder cocaine is converted to crack in their areas. Regionally, the highest proportion of agencies that reported crack conversion in their areas was in the Southeast (88.0%) region, followed by the Great Lakes (69.2%), Southwest (68.8%), West Central (52.4%), and the Pacific (47.8%) regions. The principal producers of crack cocaine are African American and Hispanic street gangs. No estimate exists as to what percentage of powder cocaine is converted to crack.

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Transportation

Cocaine is smuggled to the United States from foreign source countries--Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia--primarily overland from Mexico but also by air and maritime means via the Caribbean or directly from South America. According to the Interagency Assessment of Cocaine Movement (IACM), an estimated 544 metric tons of export-quality cocaine (average 78% pure) departed South America moving toward the United States in 2002. An estimated 192 metric tons were seized or consumed en route, leaving an estimated 352 metric tons of cocaine available to U.S. markets in 2002. Of that amount, approximately 72 percent transited the Mexico-Central America corridor, 27 percent transited the Caribbean corridor, and 1 percent was transported directly to the United States.

Figure 6. Cocaine Flows to the United States

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Source: ONDCP, 2002 Annual Assessment of Cocaine Movement, March 2003.

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Mexico-Central America Corridor

Much of the cocaine destined for the United States initially is transported through the Mexico-Central America corridor, primarily via the eastern Pacific and western Caribbean maritime routes and then overland through Mexico. Traffickers used the eastern Pacific route, from the west coast of Colombia to rendezvous points off the coast of Mexico, heavily in 2002. According to the IACM, much of the cocaine detected en route to the United States in 2002 transited the eastern Pacific. Cocaine traffickers using this route in 2002 primarily traveled by go-fast boats, signaling lesser reliance on the use of larger fishing vessels than in previous years. Go-fast boats also are the primary means used by traffickers to transport cocaine via the western Caribbean route, from the north coast of Colombia through the western Caribbean to Central America or Mexico. Cocaine traffickers, including Colombian, Panamanian, Venezuelan, and other South America- and Central America-based criminal groups, deliver the cocaine to Mexican traffickers in Mexico who use commercial and private vehicles as well as small private aircraft to transport the drug to the U.S.-Mexico border. Cocaine is smuggled across the border via commercial and private vehicles, rail, buses, tunnels, and pedestrians. Cocaine smuggled across the border in commercial vehicles often is concealed in legitimate products such as automotive parts, produce, building materials, and heavy machinery.

According to the El Paso Intelligence Center (EPIC), in 2002 approximately 64 percent of the cocaine seized at ports of entry (POEs) along the U.S.-Mexico border was seized at POEs in Texas (6,003 kg), 25 percent was seized at California POEs (2,357 kg), 10 percent at POEs in Arizona (973 kg), and only 1 percent at New Mexico POEs (103 kg). California led the Southwest Border states in cocaine seized at POEs in 2000 (3,388 kg) and 2001 (3,530 kg); however, cocaine seizures at Texas POEs increased significantly from 1,628 kilograms in 2000 to 3,362 kilograms in 2001.

The Texas POEs that recorded the largest amounts of seized cocaine in 2002 were Laredo (1,596 kg) and El Paso (1,177.8 kg). The Del Rio POE recorded one large seizure of 1,211.3 kilograms in 2002. Cocaine smuggled into the United States through the Texas POEs of Laredo and El Paso typically is destined for Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, and New York. Cocaine often is transported to Atlanta via Houston and Florida typically by private vehicles and tractor-trailers on major highways such as Interstates 10, 20, and 35. Most cocaine is transported to Chicago via tractor-trailers and private vehicles, and commonly used routes include Interstates 10, 20, 35, 44, 55, 57, 70, and 80. Most of the cocaine transported to Dallas is transported by private and commercial vehicles traveling Interstates 10, 20, and 35. Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) and criminal groups likely transport cocaine to Houston via Mexican Highways 57, 85, and 180 to U.S. Interstates 35 and 10. Colombian traffickers typically transport cocaine to Houston via couriers on commercial flights and commercial maritime vessels arriving at ports in or near Houston, although the amount of cocaine transported to the city by Colombian traffickers is much less than that of Mexican organizations. Cocaine typically is transported from Texas POEs to New York via private vehicles and tractor-trailers on major highways such as Interstates 30, 40, 76, 78, 81, and 95.

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The California POE that recorded the largest amount of seized cocaine in 2002 was the Calexico POE (1,041.4 kg). Cocaine smuggled into the United States through the Calexico POE most often is transported to Los Angeles in private and commercial vehicles and is intended for local consumption and further transportation to cocaine markets throughout the United States. The Nogales POE recorded the largest amount of cocaine seized at Arizona POEs in 2002 (789.5 kg). Cocaine smuggled through the Nogales POE usually is transported by private and commercial vehicles to Phoenix, the primary market areas of Chicago and Los Angeles, and smaller markets throughout the Pacific, Southwest, and West Central regions. Only 103.9 kilograms of cocaine were seized at New Mexico POEs: the largest amount (94.2 kg) was seized at the Columbus POE and the balance (9.7 kg) at the Santa Teresa POE. Commonly used routes from California, Arizona, and New Mexico POEs include Interstates 5, 8, 10, and 19.

Significant quantities of cocaine also are smuggled from Mexico into the United States between POEs. According to EPIC data, the amount of cocaine seized between POEs along the U.S.-Mexico border decreased overall from 1,009.6 kilograms in 2001 to 667.49 kilograms in 2002. During that time the amount of cocaine seized between POEs decreased in Arizona (433.86 to 279.12 kg), California (55.56 to 0.06 kg), and Texas (515.97 to 365.18 kg) but increased slightly in New Mexico (4.22 to 23.13 kg). In both years, however, Texas ranked first among these states in the total amount of cocaine seized between POEs.

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Caribbean Corridor

Colombian DTOs, along with Caribbean-based cocaine transportation groups, use commercial and private sea and air conveyances--often in combination--to transport cocaine to the United States through Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and the Lesser Antilles in the eastern Caribbean. According to the IACM, Colombian traffickers primarily used Jamaica as a transshipment point for cocaine en route to the United States via the Caribbean corridor in 2002. As with the Mexico-Central America corridor, traffickers used go-fast boats extensively to transport cocaine through the Caribbean corridor in 2002; however, cocaine also was transported in containerized cargo, on coastal freighters, and by couriers on commercial flights.

Colombian drug trafficking organizations supply cocaine to Bahamian, Dominican, Haitian, Jamaican, and Puerto Rican criminal groups who transport the drug to the United States through Puerto Rico to POEs in the southeastern United States and various points along the coast. The primary POEs for cocaine smuggled into the eastern United States by these groups are in Florida. EPIC seizure data for 2002 show that 84 percent of all cocaine seized from commercial vessels in 2002 was seized at Florida POEs (3,984 kg). Miami alone accounted for 72 percent, leading all POEs for commercial maritime cocaine seizures with 3,410 kilograms, followed by Port Everglades with 494 kilograms. Miami also led all POEs for commercial maritime seizures in 2000 (3,992 kg) and 2001 (2,579 kg).

According to EPIC data, cocaine seizures from commercial air carriers have been highest in Miami and New York for the past 3 years, although amounts seized in Miami have decreased steadily from 2000 (2,115 kg), to 2001 (1,527 kg), to 2002 (1,312 kg). During the same period, commercial air cocaine seizures in New York fluctuated, ranging from less than 600 to more than 800 kilograms, and remained secondary to seizures in Miami.

Cocaine traffickers transport the drug to Miami (the largest container port in Florida) concealed in containerized cargo and to points along the southern Florida coast primarily by go-fast boats or other small private watercraft. Traffickers also use couriers on commercial flights or air cargo to transport cocaine to Miami. Cocaine is transported from Miami to drug markets such as Atlanta, New York, and Philadelphia.

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Cocaine is transported to the New York area directly from source countries by sea and air, through Mexico and across the U.S. border in private and commercial vehicles, and through the Caribbean--either by sea and air directly to the city or by sea, air, and then overland via Miami. Only 14 kilograms of cocaine were seized in New York from commercial vessels in 2002; however, seizures from commercial air carriers frequently occurred at John F. Kennedy (JFK) and Newark Liberty International Airports.

According to EPIC, commercial maritime and air cocaine seizures at Puerto Rico POEs were lower in 2002 than in the 2 previous years. In 2000 and 2001 more than 300 kilograms of cocaine were seized from commercial vessels and more than 700 kilograms were seized from commercial air carriers at Puerto Rico POEs. In 2002, however, only 70 kilograms of cocaine were seized from commercial vessels at Puerto Rico POEs and 39 kilograms were seized from commercial air carriers.

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Direct to the Continental United States

According to the IACM, cocaine traffickers smuggle the drug from Colombia directly into major Atlantic and Gulf Coast POEs on commercial vessels or commercial flights. This direct route accounted for only 1 percent of all cocaine transported to the United States in 2002, down steadily from 3 percent in 2000 and 2 percent in 2001.

Transportation Within the United States

Within the United States powder cocaine generally is transported overland. Law enforcement reporting indicates that traffickers are increasing their use of private and commercial vehicles to transport cocaine throughout the country and decreasing their use of couriers on commercial flights, trains, and bus lines. EPIC seizure data, as well as law enforcement reporting, indicate that cocaine shipments transported by private vehicle typically range from 2 to 50 kilograms, although shipments can range up to multihundred-kilogram quantities. Shipments of cocaine transported in commercial vehicles vary widely; however, most shipments seized fall within a range of 40 to 600 kilograms. Quantities of cocaine transported by couriers aboard commercial flights or by mail services generally are less than 10 kilograms. The transportation of crack cocaine to U.S. drug markets is limited because crack typically is converted at or near distribution points, either by retail distributors or by users. Crack cocaine transportation likely is further limited because of relatively strong legal penalties associated with crack cocaine possession compared with those for an equal quantity of powder cocaine. Nonetheless, crack cocaine transportation by independent dealers and street gang members has been reported primarily west of the Mississippi in Billings (MT), Denver, El Paso, Honolulu, Houston, Salt Lake City, Sioux Falls (SD), and Seattle.

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Distribution

The distribution of powder cocaine and crack occurs throughout the country, and the market for the drug appears to be stable overall. All DEA Field Divisions and HIDTAs report that powder cocaine is distributed in their areas, most report that crack cocaine is distributed in urban areas within their jurisdictions, and some report that crack is increasingly distributed in smaller towns and communities.

Mexican criminal groups are the predominant distributors of wholesale quantities of cocaine throughout much of the United States. Reporting from HIDTAs and DEA Field Divisions in the Great Lakes, Pacific, Southwest, and West Central regions indicates that Mexican criminal groups control most wholesale cocaine distribution in these areas. Colombian criminal groups control most wholesale cocaine distribution in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic and Southeast regions; however, reporting from the DEA New York Field Division and the New York/New Jersey HIDTA indicates that Mexican criminal groups are increasingly supplying Dominican criminal groups with wholesale amounts of cocaine in New York City, particularly in northern Manhattan. DEA Field Divisions in Detroit, Los Angeles, and New Orleans report some involvement of both Mexican and Colombian criminal groups in wholesale cocaine distribution, as do the Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Nevada, Philadelphia/Camden, and New Mexico HIDTAs.

A wide range of criminal groups and independent dealers distribute cocaine at the retail level. African American and Hispanic criminal groups and gangs are the predominant retail distributors of powder cocaine in every region of the country. Caucasian independent dealers also distribute powder cocaine to some extent in every region of the country. Mexican criminal groups are prominent retail distributors of powder cocaine in the Great Lakes, Southwest, and West Central regions. Dominican, Jamaican, and Puerto Rican criminal groups are prominent retail distributors in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic and Southeast regions. Haitian criminal groups also distribute powder cocaine at the retail level, particularly in Florida. Several state and local law enforcement agencies from the West Central region also identify Native American criminal groups as retail distributors of powder cocaine both within and outside Native American reservation lands.

Law enforcement reporting indicates that outlaw motorcycle gangs (OMGs) only occasionally distribute powder cocaine. NDTS 2003 data show that just 9.0 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies reported high or moderate involvement of OMGs in powder cocaine distribution.

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African American and Hispanic gangs distribute crack in every region of the country. According to NDTS 2003 data, nearly half (47.5%) of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide reported that street gangs distribute crack cocaine in their areas. Dominican, Jamaican, and Puerto Rican criminal groups are prominent retail distributors of crack in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic region, particularly in New York City and Philadelphia.

Crack distribution by members of OMGs appears to be very limited. NDTS 2003 data reveal that only 4.5 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies reported high or moderate involvement of OMGs in crack distribution.

Wholesale amounts of powder cocaine generally are distributed in 1-kilogram bricks sealed in plastic or cellophane. Retail amounts (¹/₈ oz to 1 g) typically are packaged in small plastic bags, in the tied-off corners of plastic bags, and in cellophane, glassine, or paper folds. Crack cocaine typically is distributed in rocks (¹/₁₀ g to ¹/₂ g) and is packaged the same as retail amounts of powder cocaine. Crack cocaine dealers often carry packaged rocks of crack in their mouths and spit them into buyers' hands to avoid law enforcement detection. Crack often is sold along with marijuana and, occasionally, with heroin, methamphetamine, and MDMA.

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Primary Market Areas

Cocaine is distributed and used in drug markets in every region of the country; however, reporting from law enforcement and public health agencies indicates that Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, and New York are the primary market areas for cocaine. These cities have large cocaine user populations and are the predominant centers for national- and regional-level distribution of wholesale quantities of cocaine to other significant markets such as Baltimore, Boston, Detroit, Newark, Philadelphia, and Phoenix. 

Figure 7. Primary Market Areas: Cocaine

Atlanta. The distribution and abuse of both powder and crack cocaine are at high levels in Atlanta. DAWN data indicate that the estimated number of ED mentions for cocaine in Atlanta increased from 8,891 in 2001 to 8,947 in 2002. ED mentions for cocaine exceed those for any other illicit drug in Atlanta, and the city ranks fifth among all DAWN reporting cities for cocaine mentions. The rate of cocaine-related ED mentions in Atlanta also is high (239 per 100,000 population), again ranking the city fifth among DAWN reporting cities. DAWN mortality¹⁴ data for 2001 reveal that 137 of the 233 drug-related deaths in Atlanta were cocaine-related--more than for any other illicit drug--ranking Atlanta ninth among all DAWN reporting cities. ADAM data indicate that 49.4 percent of adult male arrestees in Atlanta tested positive for cocaine in 2002, the highest percentage among ADAM reporting cities.

Cocaine is transported to Atlanta primarily by Mexican traffickers via southwestern states. Law enforcement reporting and seizure data suggest that Atlanta-based wholesale and midlevel distributors supply cocaine within the city and to drug markets principally in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic and Southeast regions. EPIC seizure data indicate that Interstates 85 and 95 are the most common routes used by traffickers to transport cocaine east and north from Atlanta to drug markets in North and South Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and Washington, D.C.

Mexican and, to a lesser extent, Dominican criminal groups control wholesale and midlevel cocaine distribution in Atlanta, supplying African American and Hispanic gangs and local independent dealers with the drug for retail distribution. Over the past year Mexican criminal groups expanded their influence over wholesale and midlevel cocaine distribution within the Atlanta area and appear to be the predominant suppliers of the drug to midlevel and retail distributors. Law enforcement reporting indicates that most of the cocaine transported to Atlanta for local distribution is converted to crack by local African American and Hispanic gangs, who also control most retail crack distribution.

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Chicago. Chicago is a primary market area for cocaine because of very high demand for the drug in the city and because the city serves as a principal source of the cocaine available throughout much of the Great Lakes region. DAWN data show that cocaine-related ED mentions in Chicago increased, although not significantly, from 16,202 in 2001 to 16,227 in 2002, ranking the city first among all DAWN reporting cities for cocaine mentions. DAWN data further indicate that the rate of cocaine-related ED mentions per 100,000 population in Chicago remained relatively stable from 2001 (277) to 2002 (275)--highest among all DAWN reporting cities and significantly higher than the average (78) among DAWN reporting cities. DAWN mortality data indicate that the number of drug-related deaths in which cocaine was mentioned increased from 464 in 2000 to 514 in 2001 in Chicago, more than any other DAWN reporting city. The Illinois Department of Human Services reports that more than 9,100 individuals were admitted to publicly funded treatment facilities for cocaine abuse in Chicago during FY2001 and that almost 90 percent reported smoking crack cocaine as the primary mode of administration. ADAM data indicate that 47.9 percent of adult male arrestees in Chicago tested positive for cocaine in 2002, ranking the city third behind Atlanta (49.4%) and New York (49.0%) among ADAM reporting cities.

Cocaine is transported to Chicago from southwestern states by Mexican criminal groups using primarily commercial and, to a lesser extent, private vehicles. Colombian and Dominican groups also transport wholesale quantities of cocaine to Chicago by commercial and private vehicles and sometimes by commercial flights, often from eastern states such as Florida and New York.

Chicago-based wholesale distributors are the primary suppliers of powder cocaine to markets throughout the Great Lakes region such as Cleveland, Detroit, and Milwaukee via Interstates 80 and 94 and, occasionally, to some areas of the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic, Southeast, and West Central regions. Likely routes are I-80, which extends from the Chicago area west to California and east to New York, and I-65, which extends south to the Gulf Coast, connecting with heavily traveled Interstates 40 and 10. Transportation occurs primarily by tractor-trailers and private vehicles on interstates.

DEA and HIDTA reports suggest that Mexican traffickers are the predominant wholesale distributors of cocaine in Chicago, although Colombian traffickers also are active. Chicago-based street gangs such as Gangster Disciples, Latin Kings, and Vice Lords control most retail distribution of both powder cocaine and crack in the city. These gangs sell powder cocaine and crack in open-air markets, public housing complexes, and private residences.

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Houston. The distribution of multiple tons of cocaine to and through Houston, as well as high levels of use, renders the city a primary market area for the drug. According to the Texas Commission on Alcohol and Drug Abuse (TCADA), of the 5,508 adult admissions to TCADA-funded treatment programs in Harris County in 2001, 1,933 were for powder or crack cocaine abuse. Of those cocaine-related admissions, 1,628 mentioned crack cocaine as the primary drug of abuse, the most for any drug.

Multiple tons of cocaine are transported to Houston annually by Mexican and, to a lesser extent, Colombian criminal groups for local and national distribution. From Houston, wholesale quantities of powder cocaine are transported by Mexican criminal groups to regional markets such as Dallas-Fort Worth (I-45) and to other primary market areas such as Atlanta (Interstates 10, 65, 20, and 85), Chicago (Interstates 45, 44, 55, and 57), and New York (Interstates 10, 59, 65, 85, and 95). In addition, EPIC seizure data show that Houston has been the origin of powder cocaine shipments to the Great Lakes and Southeast regions, to Miami, and to cities in Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island. Crack cocaine also has been transported from Houston to regional markets in Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi, most likely via I-10.

Mexican criminal groups who transport cocaine to Houston serve as the predominant wholesale distributors of the drug. Colombian and Dominican criminal groups also distribute wholesale quantities of cocaine within and out of the city. Mexican, Colombian, Jamaican, and Dominican criminal groups, and gangs such as Black Gangster Disciples, Crips, Denver Harbor, Latin Kings, and Mara Salvatrucha control most retail distribution of powder cocaine and crack. Law enforcement reports suggest that some Hispanic gangs supply powder cocaine to African American criminal groups who convert it and then distribute crack cocaine. Prison gangs such as Hermanos de Pistoleros Latinos, Mexican Mafia, and Raza Unida also distribute lesser amounts of cocaine at the retail level.

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Los Angeles. Cocaine is distributed from Los Angeles to other significant drug markets throughout the country. The city also has a very large cocaine user population. DAWN data indicate that the estimated number of ED mentions for cocaine in the Los Angeles metropolitan area decreased from 9,999 in 2001 to 9,364 in 2002, higher than any other drug and ranking the city fourth among all DAWN reporting cities for cocaine mentions. Despite the overall high number of estimated ED mentions for cocaine, the rate of such mentions in Los Angeles (108 per 100,000 population) ranks only fourteenth among DAWN reporting cities. DAWN mortality data for 2000, the latest year for which such data are available, indicate that of 1,192 drug-related deaths, 471 were cocaine-related, ranking Los Angeles second among DAWN reporting cities in that year. According to the California Department of Alcohol and Drug Programs, 9,833 individuals were admitted to publicly funded treatment facilities in Los Angeles County for cocaine abuse in FY2002.

Most of the cocaine available in Los Angeles is transported overland by Mexican and, to a lesser extent, Colombian traffickers from Mexico via California and Arizona POEs. Mexican and Colombian criminal groups transport multiple tons of cocaine from Los Angeles to every region of the country, including other primary market areas such as Atlanta, Chicago, and New York. Los Angeles is near Interstates 10 and 40, which extend from southern California across the country to Florida and North Carolina, respectively, facilitating the transportation of cocaine to markets throughout the country.

Law enforcement reporting indicates that Mexican and Colombian wholesale and midlevel distributors supply cocaine to local Hispanic gangs such as Mexican Mafia and 18th Street and African American gangs such as Bloods and Crips, who control most street-level distribution of both powder and crack cocaine in the city. Independent dealers distribute cocaine at the retail level as well.

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Miami. Miami is a primary market area for cocaine because of significant demand for the drug and because the city serves as a national-level distribution center for the drug, particularly to markets in the eastern half of the country. DAWN data indicate that the estimated number of ED mentions for cocaine increased from 4,641 in 2001 to 5,055 in 2002, ranking the city ninth among all DAWN reporting cities for cocaine mentions. The rate of cocaine mentions per 100,000 population in Miami increased from 2001 (225) to 2002 (240), when it ranked fourth among DAWN reporting cities. DAWN mortality data indicate that, of the 239 deaths involving drug abuse in 2001, cocaine was mentioned in 178, ranking Miami sixth among DAWN reporting cities.

Multiple tons of powder cocaine are transported to Miami via the Caribbean Corridor primarily by Colombian criminal groups. From Miami, cocaine is transported to markets in the Great Lakes, Northeast/Mid-Atlantic, and Southeast regions including the primary market areas of Atlanta, Chicago, and New York. Transportation of cocaine from Miami to other markets occurs primarily via I-75, which extends from southern Florida north to Michigan, and I-95, which runs from the Atlantic side of southern Florida along the East Coast north to Maine. Interstate 95 connects with large cocaine markets such as Baltimore, Philadelphia, Newark, New York, and Boston.

Colombian traffickers control most wholesale cocaine distribution in Miami. Colombian midlevel distributors supply powder cocaine to midlevel distributors, primarily Haitian, Jamaican, and Cuban criminal groups, as well as African American and Hispanic gangs. Local independent dealers are the predominant retail distributors of powder cocaine in Miami; however, Haitian and Jamaican criminal groups and African American and Hispanic gangs control most crack distribution.

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New York. New York is the largest market in the country for cocaine. It serves as the source of much of the cocaine available in the Great Lakes and Northeast/Mid-Atlantic regions, and the city has one of the largest cocaine user populations in the country. DAWN data show that the estimated number of ED mentions for cocaine (both powder and crack) in New York remained relatively stable from 2001 (13,898) to 2002 (13,961), when the city ranked second among all DAWN reporting cities for cocaine mentions. The rate of ED mentions (166 per 100,000 population) was unchanged from 2001 to 2002. DAWN mortality data indicate that of the 924 deaths involving drug abuse in the New York metropolitan area in 2000 (the latest year for which data were available), 492 were cocaine-related deaths, highest among DAWN reporting cities that year.

According to the most recently available data from the New York State Office of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Services, the total number of primary cocaine admissions to state-funded and private treatment programs in New York City decreased from 15,913 in 1999 to 14,059 in 2000. ADAM data indicate that 49.0 percent of adult male arrestees in New York City tested positive for cocaine in 2001, the second highest percentage for any ADAM site in that year.

Colombian, Dominican, and Mexican DTOs and criminal groups are the principal transporters of cocaine to the New York area. Colombian criminal groups are the primary transporters of cocaine to New York from source countries by commercial air carriers. Colombian and Dominican criminals transport the drug from southeastern states to New York via commercial and private vehicles. Mexican criminal groups also transport wholesale quantities of cocaine--usually for Colombian DTOs--from southwestern states to New York via commercial and private vehicles. Jamaican and Puerto Rican criminal groups and traditional organized crime groups also transport cocaine to New York, but to a much lesser extent.

Colombian and Dominican drug trafficking organizations control most wholesale cocaine distribution in New York. Mexican DTOs and criminal groups are expanding their influence over wholesale distribution of the drug. Dominican criminal groups are the primary midlevel cocaine distributors; however, Colombian, Mexican, and Puerto Rican criminal groups also frequently distribute midlevel quantities of cocaine. Retail-level distributors of cocaine and crack include a variety of groups: African American, Dominican, Jamaican, and Puerto Rican criminal groups; street gangs such as Bloods, Latin Kings, Ņetas, and Mara Salvatrucha; and independent dealers.

New York-based wholesale and midlevel cocaine distributors supply powder cocaine to markets throughout the Great Lakes, Northeast/Mid-Atlantic, and Southeast regions including the primary market areas of Atlanta and Chicago. Interstate 80 extends west from New York to California, facilitating the transportation of cocaine to markets in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic and Great Lakes regions, while I-95 connects New York to markets along the East Coast from New England to Florida.

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Key Developments

DEA Cocaine Signature Program (CSP) data indicate that average wholesale cocaine purity may be increasing, following successive decreases each year between 1999 and 2002. CSP data show an increase in average wholesale cocaine purity from 79 percent in the first quarter of 2003 to 81 percent during the second quarter. Factors contributing to the increase include a noted reduction in the use of diluents at cocaine laboratories and an apparent increase in the practice of oxidizing cocaine base. CSP data indicate an overall decrease in diluents identified in tested samples from kilogram quantities of cocaine since the fourth quarter of 2002. Moreover, CSP data show that the rates of highly oxidized exhibits of kilogram quantities of cocaine--those that were freed of major impurities by washing cocaine solution with potassium permanganate or a substitute oxidizing agent--were at their highest recorded levels in the first two quarters of 2003.

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Projections

Potential worldwide cocaine production will likely decrease slightly. According to interagency estimates, potential cocaine yield in Colombia--the greatest source of cocaine available in U.S. drug markets--decreased approximately 14 percent in 2002 due to intensified aerial eradication efforts in that country. The International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) reports that the total number of hectares of coca sprayed for eradication increased approximately 45 percent from 2001 to 2002. The number of hectares sprayed increased again from 2002 to 2003, albeit only 2 percent, from 130,363 hectares to 131,000 hectares. In addition, on August 19, 2003, the Department of State was authorized to resume support to the Airbridge Denial Program (suspended since 2001), which is designed to greatly reduce the number of small aircraft transporting cocaine base from countries such as Peru and Ecuador to Colombia for processing into cocaine.

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End Notes

1. Regions reported in this assessment correspond to the six regions identified in Figure 1.

2. NDTS data do not imply that there is only one drug threat per region. A percentage given for a region represents the proportion of state and local law enforcement agencies in that region that identified a particular drug as their greatest threat.

3. Gangs are defined by the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations as groups or associations of three or more persons with a common identifying sign, symbol, or name, the members of which individually or collectively engage in criminal activity that creates an atmosphere of fear and intimidation.

4. The Office of National Drug Control Policy publishes Pulse Check, a report designed to present findings on drug use patterns and drug markets as reported by ethnographers, epidemiologists, treatment providers, and law enforcement officials. These Pulse Check sources focus on the drug abuse situation in 20 specific sites throughout the country.

5. FDSS data contain information on drug seizures made by the DEA, Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Customs Service, U.S. Border Patrol, and U.S. Coast Guard. Seizures by other federal agencies are recorded in the FDSS if custody of the drug evidence is transferred to one of those agencies listed.

6. The NSDUH--formerly the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA)--a project of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration since 1971, is the primary source of information on the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco by the civilian, noninstitutionalized population in the United States.

7. MTF is an ongoing study of the behaviors, attitudes, and values of students and young adults. Funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, MTF annually surveys eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders in public and private schools in the coterminous United States and a subsample of college students and adults from previous graduating classes who participated in the survey as seniors.

8.Statistically significant: A difference between two estimates is said to be statistically significant if the value of the statistic used to test the difference is larger or smaller than would be expected by chance alone.

9. The PRIDE Survey is the country's largest independent study of adolescent drug use and other behaviors. It presents substance abuse information on sixth through twelfth graders derived from data collected between August and June of the school year.

10. The PATS tracks trends in drug use and drug-related attitudes that drive drug consumption trends. It is the largest ongoing research study of drug-related behaviors and attitudes of children, teens, and adults.

11. DAWN measures the consequences of drug use through hospital emergency departments. Hospitals eligible for DAWN are nonfederal, short-stay, general hospitals in the coterminous United States that have a 24-hour emergency department. DAWN ED data include information on ED episodes that are induced by or related to the use of an illegal drug or the nonmedical use of a legal drug.

12. TEDS provides data on the demographic and substance abuse characteristics of admissions to publicly funded substance abuse treatment programs that report to individual state administrative data systems.

13. The ADAM program measures the extent of drug use in the high-risk population of people who have been arrested. Data are collected through probability-based sampling, and information is derived from interviews and urinalyses obtained voluntarily and recorded confidentially.

14. DAWN mortality data include information on drug-induced and drug-related deaths identified and submitted by death investigation jurisdictions participating in DAWN.

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