Opinions
Reappointment of United States Parole Commissioners
A statute providing for the automatic extension of the term of a Presidential appointee unconstitutionally interferes with the President’s authority under the Appointments Clause.
Trade Act Restrictions on the Extension of Most-Favored-Nation Rights
A trade agreement negotiated with Canada to be implemented pursuant to the “fast track” authority provided by the Trade Act of 1974, as amended, is subject to § 102(b)(3) of the 1974 Act, 19 U.S.C. § 2112(b)(3). That section prohibits the extension to other countries of any trade benefits received by a country under a “fast track” agreement if such agreement provides for a reduction or elimination of any duty imposed by the United States. As a matter of domestic law, this prohibition was intended to, and does, impair the automatic operation of most-favored-nation clauses in various treaties to which the United States is a party. The impairment caused by § 2112(b)(3) can be reduced in this instance by simultaneously concluding an agreement with Canada addressing non-duty benefits and a separate agreement addressing duty reductions. Section 2112(b)(3) would prevent only the benefits given to Canada under the latter agreement from being extended to third countries enjoying applicable most-favored-nation rights. Furthermore, any legislation implementing the trade agreement with Canada would not operate to repeal the operation of § 2112(b)(3) in this case unless Congress expressly provided to that effect in the legislation. Finally, the United States’ international obligations with respect to most-favored-nation agreements have force even if such agreements were concluded after enactment of § 2112(b)(3).
Constitutionality of Closing the Palestine Information Office, an Affiliate of the Palestine Liberation Organization
The federal government may, without violating the First Amendment or the Bill of Attainder Clause of the Constitution, order the Palestine Information Office in Washington to close. The political branches have broad authority to control the flow of funds into the United States, and may prevent all commerce between foreign and domestic entities, or cut off the supply of all noninformational material from a foreign country to a domestic entity.
Furthermore, neither foreign political entities, nor domestic organizations and individuals to the extent they profess an identity with such entities, have constitutional rights under the First Amendment. The First Amendment also permits restrictions on the speech and association rights of domestic organizations and individuals when they act pursuant to the direction and control of a foreign entity. The same restrictions on the expressive activities of domestic organizations and individuals are not permitted, however, outside the scope of such a relationship.
Application of the Davis-Bacon Act to Urban Development Projects That Receive Partial Federal Funding
Section 110 of the Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 requires that those engaged in construction work that is financed with federal funds (whether in whole or in part) receive wages at rates prevailing in the locality as determined by the Secretary of Labor under the Davis-Bacon Act. However, if the construction work is not financed with federal funds, the Davis-Bacon Act wage rates need not be paid, even if other aspects of the construction project, such as land, fixtures, or services, receive federal funds pursuant to the Act.
This question arose pursuant to a dispute between the Secretary of Labor and the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development in the course of exercising their respective authorities under the Act. The Office of Legal Counsel has jurisdiction to resolve the dispute pursuant to Executive Order No. 12146.
Title X Family Planning Program Proposals
Section 1008 of Title X prohibits Title X programs from counseling and making referrals related to abortion as a method of family planning, except where such counseling and referrals are medically indicated. Such a limitation on the use o f government funds does not violate the Constitution.
The Secretary of Health and Human Services is authorized to prohibit Title X programs from engaging in abortion advocacy and to require that organizations engaged in both Title X programs and abortion-related programs segregate the two. Such requirements do not violate the Constitution.
Applicability of Emoluments Clause to Proposed Service of Government Employee on Commission of International Historians
A government employee’s proposed service as a member of a commission of international historians established under the auspices of the Austrian government would violate the Emoluments Clause of the Constitution, U.S. Const, art. I, § 9, cl. 8.
Proposed Legislation to Establish the National Indian Gaming Commission
A bill that proposes to create an “independent commission” within the Department of the Interior to regulate gambling on Indian reservations and that would give the commission the power, inter alia, to impose civil fines, gives rise to several constitutional issues. The extent to which Congress may restrict the removal of subordinate executive officers such as the members of the Indian Gaming Commission is unclear, but such restrictions should be avoided. Furthermore, consistent with the Appointments Clause, the authority to waive a federal statute should be subject to the approval of a principal officer, such as the Secretary of the Interior.
Under the Due Process Clause, civil penalties imposed by members of the Indian Gaming Commission should be imposed by an unbiased administrative judge rather than an interested official.
Under the Fourth Amendment, the Indian Gaming Commission may conduct warrantless searches of gambling establishments, which are part of a closely regulated industry, only if: (1) there is a substantial government interest; (2) the searches are necessary to further the regulatory scheme; and (3) the statute provides a constitutionally adequate substitute for a warrant. The first and second requirements are met in this case. The third requirement may be met by providing notice in the statute that inspections will be made on a regular basis and will have a particular scope.
Resolution of Legal Dispute Between the Department of Energy and the Tennessee Valley Authority
The Tennessee Valley Authority is a part of the Executive Branch. The members of its board of directors serve at the pleasure of the President. In a legal dispute between two Executive agencies whose heads serve at the pleasure of the President, Executive Order No. 12146 requires that the dispute be referred to the Attorney General for resolution.
Applicability of 18 U.S.C. § 219 to Retired Foreign Service Officers
A retired foreign service officer is not a public official of the United States subject to 18 U.S.C. § 219, which provides criminal penalties for conduct that would usually constitute a violation of the Emoluments Clause of the Constitution, Article I, § 9, cl. 8.
Damages and Arbitration Provisions in Proposed Amendments to the Fair Housing Act
Certain proposed amendments to the Fair Housing Act would provide that parties may voluntarily submit their dispute to an arbitrator empowered to impose compensatory and punitive damages (as opposed to equitable relief or restitution). These amendments would be permissible under the Seventh Amendment because they amount to a waiver of a right, that would otherwise obtain, to a jury trial on compensatory and punitive damages. The amendments also comport with the strictures of Article III. The Supreme Court has held that Article III strictures cannot be waived, but the Court also has found that purely voluntary procedures severely minimize any Article III concerns.
Other aspects of the proposed amendments to the Fair Housing Act, which authorize mandatory proceedings before an arbitrator or administrative law judge with the power to award compensatory and punitive damages, would likely not survive scrutiny under the Seventh Amendment and Article III. The cause of action created by the Fair Housing Act appears to be derived from a common law action that is historically within the exclusive preserve of Article III courts operating with a jury. Furthermore, the right at issue is private in nature, in that it is intended to determine the liability of one individual to another. In addition, the housing market is not a specialized area of administrative regulation by the Federal Government.
Finally, the Fair Housing Act setting does not seem to involve an imperative necessity for Congress to choose an administrative remedy, as demonstrated by the fact that judicial proceedings would remain available to plaintiffs and there would be only minimal differences in the relief available in the administrative and judicial forums. Under the Supreme Court’s admittedly confusing and inconsistent precedents, these factors suggest that the proposed mandatory administrative proceedings would not comport with Article III or the Seventh Amendment.